The Hall judgment after death, where the deceased
is sentenced to eternal destiny in Paradise or hell.
Of all the fields, of civilization literature figured high. Ancient Egypt
was the source of great works written on papyrus or on the walls of temples,
tombs, pyramids, obelisks, portraits and monuments. These works of art
succeeded for many centuries. Over time many changes took place; many
governments and civilizations, vanished and others appeared, but the ideals of
the ancient Egyptian literature persisted even in our age. Besides, ancient
Egyptian literature formed central elements in folkloric works of many
nations. This shows how elevated ancient Egyptians moral and literary
perceptions were, even before divine religions were revealed or even before
the world knew great literary masterpieces.
Ancient Egyptian literature rose and grew in the bosom of religious
beliefs, but it quickly evolved to deal with man’s ordinary day-to-day life.
Literary works occupied a distinguished position in the ancient Egyptian
thought and civilization. The ancient Egyptians viewed literature as a source
of spiritual nourishment and a unique way to elevate style of
 expression.
Refined literary style was a source of pride for the writer and appreciation
and enjoyment for the reader.
Ancient Egyptian literature tackled almost all aspects of life. Literary
works were classified by subjects into various “genres” such as novels,
short stories, poetry, folkloric tales, proverbs, wise-sayings, moral
teachings, philosophical meditations and literary messages. The latter were
divided into title, introduction, body and conclusion.
Literary debates involved opposite parties rendering them arguments and
counter arguments.
Besides, ancient Egyptians wrote plays, dramatic poetry, songs, religious
hymns and love poetry, in addition to description of nature, panegyrical poems
to glorify their kings and their glorious battles, and songs for workers and
farmers and others to be sung in parties.
Influence on world literature
In ancient Egyptian literature, there is a story dating back to the Middle
Kingdom (2022 BC-1850 BC). This era witnessed a great number of writers and
thinkers who left behind a number of works of art reflecting the elevated
status of thinking and culture in ancient Egypt. The story is entitled “The
Sailor and the Wonder Island”. It narrates the story of an ancient Egyptian
sailor whose ship was wrecked with all on board drowned. As the only survivor,
he lives on an isolated island, finds a treasure, returns home and the mysterious
island sinks deep into the sea immediately after his departure.
Scholars of comparative literature maintain that the structure, plot and
general theme of the source was inspired by many of the greatest and most
famous novelists all over the world. The story had influenced many famous
classical and romantic novels invoking adventures in search of valuable
treasures and heroes who lived in isolated islands.
Robert Louis Stevenson’s “Treasure Island” is a good example. This
novel narrates the adventures of the hero “Jim Hawkens” who found a map of
a treasure buried in an isolated island. Another example is the French writer
“Alexandre Dumas’s “Conte De Monte Cristo”. This novel tells the story
of “Edmound Dante” who suffers much and goes through a series of exciting
adventures to find a buried treasure in the isolated island of Monte Cristo.
At the end, he gets the treasure and returns home safe. Surprisingly enough,
ship the hero's ship was named “Pharaoh”.
Critics of comparative literature state that the ancient Egyptian story of
“The Sailor and the Wonder Island” had influenced “Hay Ibn Yaqthan”, a
story written in the 12th century by the Arab Andalusian philosopher “Abo
Bakre Ibn Tafayl”. “Hay Ibn Yaqthan” a philosophical story of a man who
lives since his childhood on an isolated island. Through reasoning, he reaches
philosophical conclusions proving the existence of Allah. This story had a
wide influence on world philosophers and creative writers after being
translated into many languages such as Latin, French, English, German and Dutch.
Divine Comedy versus Message of Forgiveness
Scholars and critics of comparative literature are at logger head on the
extent of the influence of the “Message of Forgiveness” written by the
great Arabic poet abul-Ala’al- Ma’arri (973-1057 AD) on Dante Aligieri’s
Divine Comedy”. The central theme of both works is the description of heaven
and hell in the hereafter.
A number of Impartial scholars believe that this theme has clear roots in
ancient Egyptian literature which tackled this theme in many works. It was
evident in “The Book of the Dead”, “The Book of the Gates”, and in the
story “Isis, Osiris and the World of Dead “.
Ancient Egyptian writers expressed their imaginative vision of the journey
of the soul after leaving the body to the sky until it reaches the court
where the deceased’s heart is weighed against “Ma’et’s feather” that
symbolizes justice, truthfulness, rightness and bounty. Then, the deceased is
sentenced to eternal paradise or hell.
In heaven, called “Iyarow’s fields”, the deceased enjoys eternal
youth without sickness, senility, or death. He is dressed in magnificent
clothes that never wear out or get dirty, eats and drinks the most delicious
food, fruits and fresh water. Besides, he enjoys eternal peace of mind,
safety, and peace as there is no evil souls, snakes, beasts or insects.
In hell, the bad people are thrown, where they undergo eternal punishment
in certain lakes full of water like fire flames, voracious crocodiles, snakes,
and vipers. Besides, the guardians of these lakes are voracious beasts that
inflict all sorts of torture on wicked hell residents.
Cinderella in ancient Egyptian literature
Cinderella's story with the same central themes appears in abundance in the
folkloric and literary works of many nations all over world. The most famous
writers who tackled the story were the German Grim brothers.
Cinderella's story with the same central themes can be traced in some
literary works appearing on the ancient Egyptian papyri in different names and
styles.
The first reference of this story dates back to the era of the fourth
Dynasty in the 26th Century BC. Then, a copy of this story, dating back to the
Modern Kingdom between 16th and12th centuries BC., was found. This copy
contains a detailed description of the humiliation and torture inflicted on Cinderella
by her step-mother. Another papyrus dating back to the Sixth Century BC.
showed the same story.
Novel
The ancient Egyptians excelled in novel writing. This is reflected in the
great number of stories left behind. In some of these stories, a well-traveled
hero tells us about his adventures such as the story of the drowned sailor and
the dangers he witnessed on the mythical island of snakes.
Another example is “Snohi”; story that became very famous for many
centuries. It describes Snohi’s escape from Egypt, his stay in Syria for
dozens of years , where he won the favor of the king. He become so close to
the leader that he allowed him to marry of his elder daughter and gave him a
plot of land. When Snohi grows old, he also grows homesick. He appeals to the
king for permission to return to Egypt to see, as he says, “the place that
his heart is longing to see because the greatest thing in the world for a man
is to be buried in the place of his birth”. His hope was fulfilled and he honorably
comes back to Egypt.
Another example of the marvelous stories is “The Eloquent Farmer”. It
tells the story of an Egyptian farmer who was robbed and treated unjustly, so
he submits eloquent complaint to the Pharaoh saying:
Look, you are the chief that hold the scales, Do not let it lose balance.
Your tongue represents that of the scales, Your lips the hub.
If you shut your eyes to the oppressor, Who else can rebuff.
It is you that make justice.
You do all good and destroy all evil.
You bring satisfaction; as you come, hunger-vanishes, You come like a calm sky
after a wild storm.
You give warmth to those stricken with cold.
Your are like fresh water that quenches thirst.
Proverbs of Ptah Hutep
The oldest text in the ancient literature which expresses, in excellent
literary style, the rules of good conduct is “The Proverbs of Ptah Hutep”.
Ptah Hutep was an ancient Egyptian minister under King Asisi of the Fifth
Dynasty (2670 BC) When he felt that he is getting older, he wanted to teach
his son wisdom. So, he wrote a papyrus containing his directives and proverbs.
The preface of this 5000 years old- papyrus says that “Here begin the
wise sayings said by the prince, sacred father, God’s favorite, the true son
of the king, ruler of the city; minister Ptah Hutep. He wrote it to educate
the ignorant and to teach him styles of wisdom and wise sayings. Glory be to
those who follow these teachings and shame be on those who neglect them.”
Ptah Hutep addresses his son saying
“Do not be arrogant of your knowledge. Consult with all: with the
educated as well as the uneducated, as knowledge has no limits and no one can
acquire all kinds of learning. If you hear someone, who is older and wiser
than you, talking, listen carefully and bow to him. If he says something
wrong, do not be angry: people will say “what an ignorant!”.
Somewhere else, Ptah Hutep advises his son saying, “If you were a leader
of a group of people, treat them well. Do not treat them unjustly; justice is
something great.”
Concerning table etiquette, Ptah Hutep teaches his son saying, "When you
sit to the table of a dignitary, take, when he asks you, from what is
immediately before you. Do not look at what is before him. Do not look too
much at him. Do not look at him unless he salutes you. Do not talk unless he
salutes you. Laugh when he laughs. This will make him delighted and satisfied
with you because man does not know the reality of the heart.”
Regarding destiny and divine decree and how to be satisfied with the
god’s judgment, Ptah Hutep tells his son, “Let not a man with no children
envy you. Do not step away from him making him sad and grieved. A farther with
many children may be worried in spite of his high rank. Similarly, the mother
of many children may have less time for rest. God creates man and predestines
his share in life”.
Urging his son to work and earn his living, he tells him, "Listen
son, you can not be rich without exertion. If you work hard, the god will help
you gain wealth. But if you keep lethargic and lax, the god will be always
ready to inflict his wrath and punishment on you”. If not lazy and dull, God
will hardly punish you.”
As for modesty, Ptah Hutep advises his son saying, “When you rise from
mean ranks to higher positions, grow rich after being poor, forget not your
past. Do not be proud of your wealth and do not be arrogant but remember you
are no better than your mates who had relapsed into poverty.”
The Egyptian drama
In addition to novels, proverbs and wise sayings, the ancient Egyptians
were the first to write drama. An Egyptian document dating back to king Menes
(Narmer); of the 32nd Century BC shows the first dramatic text along man’s
history on earth. The document, kept at present at the British Museum in
London contains dramatic philosophical dialogue between Egypt’s ancient
deities on the process of creating the world and the cosmic system of things
and creatures.
Therefore, historians, called this text a “drama of the start of
creation” or “the Memphis drama” named after Memphis; Egypt's capital
built by king Menes.
It is astonishing that dialogues between the gods were written in a style
typically similar to that used in classical and contemporary drama. More
interesting is that the text of this drama contains soliloquies by the
reciting priest who plays a role similar to that of the “narrator” who
interprets and comments on the events “stage directions” . Surprisingly
enough, this text contains a number of similar to those used by classical and
modern dramatists.
There is another dramatic text, inscribed on the walls of Edfu temple,
called by historians “a drama of Horus’ victory over his enemies”. This
text is considered one of the best and most complete dramatic text of the
ancient Egyptian era. It is divided into five parts: introduction, three acts,
and the end. Events evolve around the conflict between “Horus and his
followers” and “Sit and his followers”. It ends with the victory of
Horus, who represents good, truth, and justice, over “Sit”, who represents
evil, injustice, and tyranny.
Love poetry
The ancient Egyptians excelled in writing romantic love poetry. In addition
eulogies to Nile River and its merits, there were many love poems that
expressed not only vehement poison surging the heart of a lover, but also
delicate emotions. Sentiments of love were couched in beautiful similes
derived from the aesthetic aspects of Egyptian environment. For example, a
lover says to his beloved, “My beloved is like a garden, full of beautiful
papyrus blossoms and I am like a wild goose attracted by the taste of love”.
Another lover says, “My beloved is there on the other bank. We are
separated by the floodwater. On the bankside, there is a crocodile lying in wait. But
I am not afraid of it. I will swim through the water until I reach her and be
delighted.”
In another love song, two lovers exchange most refined expressions of love.
The loving woman says, “I will never leave you my darling. My only wish is
to stay in your house and at your service. We will always be hand in hand,
come and go to gather everywhere. You are my health; my life.”
It is to be noted that in many of the love poems in ancient Egypt, the man
calls his beloved as “sister” and the woman calls her lover as
“brother” in order to show how each one of them highly appreciates the
other and rises him.
A story from the Pharaonic era
Studies of ancient Egyptian literature have showed no trace of stories in
the old Kingdom era. However, there were indications of legends and tales
about deities dating back to pre-historic times. Stories that so far survived
were handed down from the Middle Kingdom era. These reflect that this art had
reached its climax during that era, but gradually deteriorated in later times.
This is a normal and historically repetitive evolution. In Greek civilization
Humer’s epics were the starting-point. Therefrom, a dramatic art started
maturely enough with Aeschylious and Sophocles. in the same way, story writing
began in the Middle Kingdom era as a natural outcome of the Ancient Kingdoms
legends.
The most notable work of that era was the story of Snohit, written in 2000
BC during the region of the 12th Dynasty.
Snohit, hero of the story, was a celebrity during the region of King
Amnemhat I . He held the titles of hereditary prince manager of royal estate
in Asian lands, exclusive and most favored entertainer of the king.
When the King come to know that some Libyans in west Delta were regularly
looting the area, he sent an army led by his eldest son Snosert conquered them
and returned with my booties including captives and livestock. En route home,
Snosest knew of the death of his father, and was the only one to be aware of
this event. He proceeded briskly to keep his throne. however, Snohit received
news that another son of the deceased King also came to know of his death and
accordingly hurried back home. Snohit anticipated a conflict over the throne
among the King’s sons. In view of his close relationship with prince
Snosert, he felt terrified by the imminent struggle and accordingly decided to
flee from Egypt. Heading towards Syria, he encountered many troubles. With no
provision, he fell down due to fatigue and thirst and was starved almost to
death. He was saved by a group of Bedouins. Being a well-known figure, they
recognized him and therefore give him food and shelter. Then, he proceeded to
Palestine whose prince warmly welcomed him when he recognized his status. He
hosted him in his palace and let him marry his eldest daughter. He further
offered him the best of his property, of which he chose a fine plot of land
rich with crops, water and livestock.
Snohit later became ruler of one of the best tribes in the century. He
lived there in peace and prosperity for a long time. As he grew older, he felt
homesick for his motherland Egypt and wished to return home and be buried
there. But how to do so, considering his earlier unjustifiable flight? The
King must be angry at him. Taking this in consideration, Snohit sent an appeal
to Snosert I, explaining his plight and excesses for his flight and begging
for permission to return home.
“I was a mouse that fled in time, but now I am being reported in the
King’s seat. I was dwindling of hunger, but now I offer bread to my neighbor.
My home is beautiful and spacious, and I am mentioned in the royal palace.
You god, whosoever you are, who had decreed that flight, have mercy on me
and bring me back to the King’s seat. May be, you will allow me to see the
place where my heart rests. More important is that my body be buried where I
was born. Oh! how much I wish if the King of Egypt will have mercy on me so
that I can live with blessing of his mercy.”
When these messages reached King Sinosert 1 and having known the plight of
his former servant, he reacted favorably and forgave him. He even sent gifts
to him. Accordingly, the King issued a royal decree stating, "Come back to
Egypt to see the King’s seat where you will die. Kiss the ground at both
great doors and get your share among members of the court.” Snohit actually
returned to Egypt, where he was warmly welcomed by the King, his sons and
entourage. He settled there and had a stone tomb erected among the tombs
surrounding the King’s.
His tomb was surrounded with a garden in such a style that became the
senior entertainer of the King. His statue, ordered to be made by King, was
adorned with gold. No poor man has ever received such tender care up to his
death, Snohit had enjoyed overwhelming royal favors.
See Also
Archives
|
